_Women In The Church_
Scriptural Principles and Ecclesial Practice
A Report of the
Commission on Theology and Church Relations of
The Lutheran Church--Missouri Synod
September 1985
Part III and Conclusion
III. GUIDELINES FOR PRACTICE
How does one address the wide range of practical questions that arise in
dealing with the topic of women in the church today? Lutherans recognize
that the "prophetic and apostolic writings of the Old and New Testaments
are the only rule and norm according to which all doctrines and teachers
alike must be appraised and judged" (FC Ep Rule and Norm 1). This article
of faith remains true also with respect to the relationship between man
and woman. God has revealed His will regarding such a relationship in His
Word. To be sure, the political and social milieu of a culture influences
the church and always will. Nevertheless, a specific sociological "mind-
set" must never be allowed to be decisive for expressing theological
judgments.
At the same time, principles alone do not describe reality. Each situation
combines many details in a unique way. Faithful, consistent application of
Biblical principles requires that each distinctive situation be carefully
assessed. We must be sure that we truly understand both the situation or
problem with which we are dealing and the full range of Scriptural
principles which should be brought to bear on it. This is especially true
of the question of the service of women in the church.
While it is impossible to deal with all the practical questions which
arise in individual congregations, there are a number of inquiries which
the Commission has received or which have been introduced in other
contexts that can be addressed briefly in a study of this kind. The
purpose of this section of the report is to suggest one approach for using
the principles and theses enunciated in Part II and to illustrate that
approach through succinct responses to the questions of 1) woman's
ordination to the pastoral office; 2) woman suffrage; and 3) additional
practical applications for situations which emerge from the contemporary
life of the church.
A. APPLYING SCRIPTURAL PRINCIPLES: AN APPROACH
James Hurley has proposed three preliminary guidelines for addressing
specific questions related to women in the church.[54] These suggested
guidelines are by no means exhaustive, but they do provide a helpful frame
of reference for approaching the pertinent issues.
1. In response to questions regarding the service of women in the church,
we must first ask whether God's Word expressly permits it or whether it
expressly prohibits the activity. In the foregoing study of the Pauline
passages it is clear that some activities are permitted while others carry
restrictions.
2. We must also ask whether an activity is consonant with the purpose of
Scripture but prevented by a technicality of human definition. To what
extent have cultural definitions-of "authority" or "subjection," for
instance-influenced our understanding of the Biblical passages? Or
conversely, does an activity which is permitted on the basis of a
technicality of definition effectively undermine nevertheless, a Biblical
norm?
3. The third guideline has to do with perceptions and the taking of
offense (cf. 1 Corinthians 8; Romans 14; FC SD X). Is an action likely to
be misunderstood or perceived in a way that it becomes a stumbling block
for others? And, a perennial question in Lutheran theology at least, is
this a situation in which an indifferent matter ceases to be a matter of
indifference?
Some practical questions about the service of women in the church may be
resolved on the basis of a clear mandate of Scripture. Other questions
cannot be given a specific answer but will need to be considered according
to individual circumstances from the perspective of definitions and/or
perceptions. Frequently, all three guidelines will be employed in seeking
to determine which ecclesiastical functions are appropriate for women to
perform.
B. WOMEN AND THE PASTORAL OFFICE
The ordination of women to the divinely instituted ministry of Word and
sacraments is a question that can be addressed on the basis of the first
guideline alone. For centuries Christendom hat consistently opposed the
practice as contrary to the express teachings of Scripture.
There are a number of issues which impinge on the question of women and
the pastoral office which remain beyond the scope of the present report
(e.g., the meaning of ordination itself[55]). However, the fundamental
Scriptural principles (and corresponding theses) examined in this study
demonstrate not only that the service of women in the pastoral office
lacks Biblical foundation but, in point of fact, is expressly prohibited
by the Scriptures.
First, the occupation of the pastoral office by women violates the
headship structure rooted in God's order of creation. Peter Brunner
writes:
. . . the combination of pastoral office and being
woman objectively and fundamentally destroys the _kephale_-
structure of the relationship between man and woman and
therefore also rejects the "ordering into" and
"subordination to" (_hypotage_) which is demanded by God's
will. That which contradicts the spiritual and creaturely
order with which God has invested being cannot be the good
that God wills! God does not contradict Himself in creation
and redemption. The apostolic command to silence, as we
find it in 1 Corinthians 14 and 1 Timothy 2, cannot be
explained away as the result of the peculiar theological
speculation of its author; who was bound by the cultural
history and special circumstances of his day. These
instructions are based much more on certain hidden, but yet
extraordinarily incisive, fundamental laws and commands
that God Himself established. . . .[56]
Second, women are not to be pastors nor perform the essential and unique
functions of the pastoral office, since the pastoral office has oversight
from God over the congregation, "the household of God" (1 Tim. 3:15).
Properly speaking, of course, the only authority or power in the church is
the Word of Christ, who is Head over all things (Eph. 1:22). However, as
noted previously, there are those within the church who are entrusted with
the office of the public ministry and are representatives of the Head of
the church.
In its 1981 report on "The Ministry" the Commission acknowledges that no
specific "checklist" of functions of the office of the public ministry is
provided in the Scriptures.[57] At the same time, it was pointed out that
the functions of the pastoral office involve public supervision of the
flock. The pastor exercises this supervision through the public
proclamation of the Word and the administration of the sacraments.[58]
This, in turn, suggests that there are certain specific functions which
should not be carried out by the laity (who may hold auxiliary offices)
but which are to be exercised by the pastor.[59] Among them are the
following:
1) preaching in the services of the congregation
2) leading the formal public services of worthily
3) the public administration of the sacraments
4) the public administration of the office of the keys
Since a "headship" over the congregation is exercised through these
functions unique to the office of the public ministry, the functioning of
women in this specific office is precluded. Just as the wife should not be
the "head" of the house, so a woman should not be the "head" over the
"household of God" (cf., 1 Tim. 5:17; 1 Thess. 5:12; 1 Tim. 3:12). Article
XIV of the Augsburg Confession states: "It is taught among us that nobody
should publicly teach or preach or administer the sacraments in the church
without a regular call" (_nisi rite vocatus_). Such a call is denied to
women by a "command of the Lord."
Although the Scriptures teach that women may not hold the pastoral office
or perform its distinctive functions, the service of women to the Lord and
His church in various other offices established to facilitate the
proclamation of the Word has been long-standing in the history especially
of The Lutheran Church-Missouri Synod. The self- denying service, gladly
given by the many faithful women who have served over the years in such
offices as deaconess, Christian day school teacher, and parish worker, has
been of immeasurable importance. Of these coworkers, too, it must be said
that they "can never be sufficiently thanked and repaid."[60]
C. WOMAN SUFFRAGE
Woman suffrage is an issue that must be decided largely on the basis of
the second of the three guidelines noted above. One reason for this is
that the matter of franchise is not discussed in the Scripture. A word
which can be translated as "voting" (_cheirotoneo_-raising the hand)
occurs in Acts 14:23 and 2 Cor. 8:19. However, when in the Corinthian
passage the churches are described as choosing a representative to
accompany Paul to Jerusalem, nothing is said about the method actually
employed. In the Acts verse, the word appears to mean "appoint." No kind
of franchise seems to be involved.[61]
In summary, the Scriptural passages employed for guidance on this question
have been those verses of 1 Corinthians 11, 1 Corinthians 14, and 1
Timothy 2 which deal with woman's subordination, woman's silence in the
church, and woman's exercise of authority. As has been noted, Paul is not
addressing himself here to anything like a contemporary "voters'
assembly." He is giving instructions to Christians regarding the
arrangement of and order in public worship.[62]
Further, it has been shown that the prohibition in 1 Tim. 2:11-12 of
woman's exercising authority is not a concept independent of "to teach."
According to this text, the woman is prohibited from the teaching in the
public worship assembly. To define "authority" simply as the power to make
decisions is alien to the exegesis of the passage. There is no express
Biblical ground for denying women the vote on issues which facilitate the
work of the priesthood of all believers in the congregation.
The definition of "suffrage" is also significant. A "democratic" society
of men and women is ruled by a majority vote. However, it is not an
exercise of the authority prohibited to women in the Scriptures. In fact,
according to this understanding of the matter, it is actually the assembly
that exercises authority as a result of suffrage, not the individual
voter. Furthermore, in the church, which is ruled by love, the casting of
a ballot should also have the added dimension of being an act of service.
The Commission presented a study to the Denver Convention (1969) of The
Lutheran Church-Missouri Synod on the issue of woman suffrage. It states
by way of conclusion: "We find nothing in Scripture which prohibits women
from exercising the franchise in voters' assemblies. Those statements
which direct women to keep silent in the church, and which prohibit them
to teach and to exercise authority over men, we understand to mean that
women ought not to hold the pastoral office."[63] Subsequent study of the
matter has provided no basis for altering these conclusions. The
Commission reaffirms them.[64]
D. ADDITIONAL PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
In applying the principles delineated above to concrete situations one
must bear in mind that the New Testament presents no ceremonial law
regulating the details of public worship. Also, in applying these
principles, it is necessary to distinguish the one divinely instituted
office of the public ministry of the Word and sacraments from all other
offices which the church establishes in Christian freedom in response to
various needs (Acts 6). Holy Scripture clearly excludes women from the
office of the public ministry of Word and sacraments. For other offices we
have no express "thus saith the Lord," and everything depends on the
functions assigned to these offices. Differences in judgment can be
expected here in decisions regarding the specific application of general
principles. What follows, therefore, is to be understood not as "canon
law" but as pastoral and collegial advice to be judged by the church in
terms of its faithfulness to such clear Scripture as is relevant.
1. Should a woman participate in public worship in the capacity of reading
the Scriptures for the day or in assisting with the formal liturgical
service?
All Christians have access to the Scriptures. They do not require the
church as an institution or another person to read and interpret them on
their behalf. The reading of the Scriptures belongs to the priesthood of
all believers, men and women.
Moreover, there is no ceremonial law in the New Testament regarding the
reading of Scripture in the context of public worship. Nor is there
explicit apostolic prohibition of such reading by women. Nevertheless, it
is the opinion of the CTCR that the reading of the Scriptures is most
properly the function of the pastoral office and should therefore not
ordinarily be delegated to a lay person, woman or man. Pastors and
congregations should therefore exercise great care in making decisions
permitting the lay reading of the Scriptures or any other activity in the
formal liturgical services which might be perceived as an assumption of
the pastoral role or a disregard for the Scriptural principles concerning
the service of women in the church (e.g., 1 Cor. 11:3-16; 14:33b-35). The
third guideline listed above concerning the perceptions which certain
actions may convey is also relevant and Should be taken into account in
answering this question.
2. May a woman address a congregation on a particular subject in which she
possesses an expertise (lectures or presentations on social and ethical
issues, etc.) and therefore "teach" in the church?
The answer to this question depends, in the first place, on the
interpretation of Paul's statement in 1 Tim. 2:12 that woman may not
teach. The passage does not expressly prohibit the instance envisioned in
the above question. The sharing and teaching this question entails does
not place the woman in the office of the pastor. She is not seeking to
enforce her teaching with discipline and is not usurping the authority of
any man. Paul did not forbid _all_ teaching by women. In terms of
perceptions or the giving of offense, such a presentation by a guest
speaker on any topic should be arranged in such a way that the impression
is not given that it replaces the sermon. There are women in the church
who, through their education and experience, have much to contribute on a
wide range of significant concerns. They should be encouraged to serve in
such capacities as gifts of God to His church.
3. Does the above response also apply to the regular adult Bible class of
a congregation which includes men?
Certainly there is a legitimate distinction between a special presentation
to the congregation and the continued instruction offered by the adult
Bible class instructor. However, there is also a distinction between
"overseeing" the instruction carried on in an adult Bible class and the
actual physical teaching of the class (just as there is a more general
distinction between "office" and "function"). It is the responsibility of
the called pastor to "oversee" the adult Bible class (as well as all of
the formal educational programs of the congregation). He may, from time to
time, have members of the church teach the class and such teachers could
indeed be women with the gifts for such a service. Their participation
would be within the bounds of the priesthood of all believers. At the same
time, teaching an adult class may involve possible, but very real,
confusion regarding the office of pastor for some in a congregation. No
doubt the pastor would seek to allay any such misunderstanding by
appropriate preparation of the class for the service of laypeople in this
capacity.
4. May women hold office in a congregation, serve on committees of the
congregation, chair committees of the congregation?
Women may hold any office and serve on any committee of the congregation
which enhances the work of the priesthood of all believers. Women also
have the privilege to chair congregational committees, since a "chair"
does not "have authority over men" any more than the committee _per se_
would have such authority in the New Testament sense. The only stricture
would have to do with anyone whose official functions would involve public
accountability for the function of the pastoral office (e.g., elders, and
possibly the chairman of the congregation). The tasks of the elders in a
congregation are often directly associated with the pastoral office and
the public administration of the office of the keys. As stated in the
introductory paragraph to this section, everything depends on the nature
of functions assigned to various offices established by the church. The
same general position outlined above applies to various district or
synodical committees and commissions. Affairs of the church have never
been assigned only to those holding the office of the public ministry.
Women offer valuable contributions to the work of such committees, boards,
and commissions.
5. What about the service of women in other worship contexts such as
devotions conducted in the chapels of synodical colleges and other
institutions?
Here, especially in the tradition of The Lutheran Church-Missouri Synod,
much has to do with definition and perception. While it is clear from the
Scriptures that women should not preach or lead the formal public worship
services of the church, many of the church's educational institutions
conduct what has been referred to as extended "family devotions" and have
asked women to serve in worship leadership capacities. These "devotions"
should be differentiated from the formal (and to a great extent, public)
worship services. Institutions that hold public worship services under the
responsibility of one who is called to be chaplain, campus pastor, dean of
the chapel, etc., would seem to be out of the realm of "family devotions"
in any acceptable meaning of the phrase. In such contexts, women should
not preach or lead the services of worship. In those other worship
opportunities which may be appropriately understood as "devotions," the
chaplain or other "spiritual head" of the community should make
responsible decisions regarding the service cf. women, keeping in mind all
of the guidelines presented in this report. It is impossible to anticipate
all of the exigencies of such situations in a general study such as that
offered in this document.
6. May women serve as assistants in the distribution of the Lord's Supper?
While some might argue that assisting the presiding minister in the
distribution of the elements is not necessarily a distinctive function of
the pastoral office, the commission strongly recommends that, to avoid
confusion regarding the office of the public ministry and to avoid giving
offense to the church, such assistance be limited to men.[65]
7. May young women serve in such capacities as acolytes or ushers in
public worship services? Since such service does not involve the exercise
of distinctive functions of the pastoral office, there should be no
objection to young women serving in such capacities. Pastoral wisdom
requires that those who make decisions in this area be sensitive to such
considerations as the effects of change in congregational worship
practices, the need for appropriate instruction regarding the principles
of Christian worship, and the importance of respectful and modest behavior
and attire for those young men and women who perform such acts of service.
CONCLUSION
In its 1977 report the synodical Task Force on Women alerted the
membership of the church to the continuing need for utilizing the gifts of
women in the service of the Christian community. This report stated:
It is the responsibility of the individual men and women
to work together as equal, redeemed Christians, putting the
welfare of the Kingdom ahead of prejudices, customs, or
mind-sets. Women and men must realize that each Christian
has a calling and a ministry and that the service of each
individual is important and valuable to the life of the
church.[66]
The present study has reviewed basic Biblical principles and directives
which speak of women in the church today with this responsibility and
concern in mind.
The nature of the topic itself has drawn attention to questions of
headship and subordination in the man/woman relationship as pertinent to
the church's life as a worshipping and serving community. To consider
these themes in this report is appropriate. Christian men and women will
want to know what God's word teaches and humbly submit to His authority in
such matters. However, they will be just as willing to receive the
apostle's inspired teaching that "the body is a unit, though it is made up
of many parts; and though all its parts are many, they form one body" (1
Cor. 12:12 NIV). Every Christian individual possesses gifts which
contribute to the function of the body, and they ought to be joyfully and
thankfully received. Thus, the Christian community will affirm the unique
and differing gifts of women, seeking ways to enlist them more fully in
the church's life and work. But God did not call His church into being and
give gifts to His people so that they would be concerned about how they
might become the greatest in the Kingdom. Since the life of every
Christian is to be characterized by obedience and submission on some
level, any demand for "rights" and "power" is inappropriate. The
Commission believes that a more precise understanding of the Biblical
teaching about the service of women in the church will move further
reflection on the topic to its appropriate level-how all members of the
church can serve our Lord and one another within the order He has
established. On this level there is no thought inferiority or superiority,
of rule and domination, but only of our Savior's words: "truly, truly, I
say to you, a servant is not greater than his master; nor is he who is
sent greater than he who sent him. If you know these things, blessed are
you if you do them." (John 13:16-17)
FOR FURTHER READING
The Commission calls attention to the following selected reference works
for background reading on the service of women in the church. Inclusion
here does not imply endorsement by the Commission of the viewpoints
expressed in them.
Brunner, Peter. _The Ministry and the Ministry Of Women._ St. Louis:
Concordia Publishing House, 1971.
A study of the role of women with respect to the pastoral
ministry. Brunner's conclusions are based on the headship
structure mandated in the order of creation and whether in
the specific office of pastor a woman can really stand in
the place of Christ. Questions are included.
Clark, Stephen B. _Man and Woman in Christ._ Ann Arbor: Servant Books,
1980.
One of the most significant studies to be published in
recent years. Clark's book contains a thorough examination
of the Scriptural teaching and deals with the controversial
issues of application. His material on scriptural teachings
will probably be more helpful than his discussion of the
social roles of men and women.
Evans, Mary J. _Woman in the Bible_. Downers Grove: Inter-varsity Press,
1983.
An interpretation of Biblical data bearing on women in the
home, in the church, and in society. The book is a good
example of the most recent thinking on these topics. While
it tends to support women in the office of the public
ministry, readers will find the exegetical attention to
specific Biblical texts helpful.
Foh, Susan. _Women and the Word of God._ Grand Rapids, Baker Book House,
1979.
This is a response to "Biblical Feminism" and its view of
Scriptural authority. The specific issues of
deculturization and hermeneutics are addressed. Contending
that some temporary churches waste the gifts of women, the
author focuses on those areas in which women may more fully
participate in the life of the church.
Hurley, James B. _Man and Woman in Biblical Perspective_. Grand Rapids:
Zondervan Publishing House, 1981.
A major study of those passages in Scripture which speak
to, the role of women in the church. Hurley stresses the
specific societal and historical settings of the passages
but also discusses their relevance to the present.
Ryrie, Charles C. _The Role of Women in the Church_ Chicago: Moody Press,
1970.
A survey of the role of women in Christian history.
Helpful reference book which indicates the views of
Christian theologians throughout history and how the church
reflected those views at various points in its past.
Scanzoni, Letha and Nancy Hardesty. _All We're Meant To Be_. Waco: Word
Books, 1974.
A treatment by two "evangelical feminist" authors who seek
to further the visibility of women in the churches by
emphasizing the "revolutionary" character of Christ's
ministry.
Zerbst, Fritz. _The Office of Women in the Church._ St. Louis: Concordia
Publishing House, 1955.
A sound treatment of the Scriptural principles regarding
the role of women in the church. The book is especially
helpful in examining and understanding the relationship
between the orders of creation and redemption. Zerbst views
the decision to ordain women as an undermining of the order
of creation.
_________________________________________________________________
NOTES:
[1] A call for increased participation of women in the corporate
life of the church led to the appointment in 1973 of the Task
Force on Women (1973 Res. 2-49 and 4-47). This Task Force
continued its work through 1977 and submitted to the Synod
detailed reports on ways in which women may more fully
participate in the life of the church. The 1977 convention
adopted three recommendations of the Task Force. One of the
recommendations was that the responsibility for studying the
issues relating to women in the church be assigned to the CTCR
(Res. 3-06). In 1981 and again in 1983 the Synod asked the CTCR
to give priority to this study. In 1984 the President of the
Synod appointed the Commission on Women and asked it to devote
itself to six tasks: 1) review material prepared by the previous
task force and evaluate the extent to which the recommendations
have been implemented in the Synod; 2) gather additional data on
the current involvement of women in various aspects of synodical
and congregational life; 3) review current emphasis and
dimensions of the women s movement in society as these affect
the church; 4) consult with the CTCR and advise it as it
prepares a theological study on the service of women in the
church; 5) recommend appropriate service and ministry
opportunities for women at all levels of church life; and 6)
explore the possibility of creating a network of forums on
women's activity in the church through the districts of the
Synod. Although work of the Commission on Women including a
Synodwide survey of the service of women has not yet been
completed the CTCR has benefited from several consultations with
the members of the Commission on Women. In the interest of
sensitizing itself to the concerns of women in the Synod the
CTCR has also shared preliminary drafts of this report with
other groups and individuals of the Synod (Council of
Presidents, seminary faculties, college presidents, the CTCR s
Social Concerns Committee, and staff at the International
Center).
[2] The Commission included a discussion of male-female
relationships within the context of marriage as a major part of
its 1981 study on "Human Sexuality: A Theological Perspective."
Material from that study especially pertinent to the present
report includes "Relational Purpose of Marriage" (pp. 13-17) and
"Headship Within Marriage" (pp. 29-32).
[3] The term for "prophetess" is used for the false prophetess
Noadiah in Neh. 6:l4, and for Isaiah's wife in Isaiah 8:3. In
the case of Isaiah's wife, the word likely means "the wife of a
prophet." _Interpreter's Dictionary of the Bible_, 1962 ed.,
s.v. "Prophetess." Cf. George Buchanan Gray, _A Critical and
Exegetical Commentary of the Book of Isaiah_, 3d ed. (Edinburgh:
T&T. Clark, 1949), p. 144.
[4] Clarence Vos, _Woman in Old Testament Worship_ (Delft:
Judels and Brinkman, 1968 pp. 164-67.
[5] Mary J. Evans, _Woman in the Bible_ (Downers Grove: Inter-
Varsity Press, 1983), p. 32.
[6] See discussion on pages 10, 11.
[7] This is clear not only from the negative fact that no call
or commission is reported to have been given them, but from the
sentence structure itself of Luke 8: l-3. Three groups are
distinguished, "Jesus," "the twelve with him," and "some women."
These women do not relate to Jesus and to His ministry in
exactly the same way as do the Twelve. The women "served" them
from "their own resources." The service of the women is
explicitly that of material support. Also the plural "them"
indicates that the Twelve were, with Jesus, recipients of the
women's administrations. This, too, shows that they stood as a
distinct group apart from the Twelve, and not in possession of
the selfsame service.
[8] Jesus' practice and teaching regarding women certainly
differs from Rabbinic Judaism. He was not of the opinion that
"there is no wisdom in women except with the distaff" (_The
Talmud_, London: Soncino Press, 1938, Vol. 11, p. 311) or that a
man should praise God "who hast not made me a heathen . . . A
woman. . . a brutish man" (_Ibid._, Vol. 2, p. 264). However,
the tendency in contemporary feminist literature to see Jesus'
dealings with women as completely revolutionary is overdrawn. He
went beyond the norms of Pharisaic or scribal interpretation of
God's teaching that were wrong. His revolution had to do with
the nature of true righteousness and of the spiritual
relationship of men and women alike before God, not with the
obliteration of the differentiation between man and woman.
[9] Our discussion follows Stephen Clark, _Man and Woman in
Christ_, (Servant Books: Ann Arbor; 1980), pp. 103-23; James
Hurley, _Man and Woman in Biblical Perspective_ (Grand Rapids:
Zondervan Publishing House, 1981), pp. 115-24; and Roger Gryson,
_The Ministry of Women in the Early Church_ (Collegeville:
Liturgical Press, 1976), pp. 3-5.
[10] John refers to a woman of the church at Thyatira, Jezebel,
as a prophetess (Rev. 2:20-24). Although he warns against her
teachings, he does not say that a woman could not prophesy.
[11] The _Didascalia Apostolorum_, written in the first half of
the third century, is the earliest full source for the role of
deaconess. Deaconesses performed a great variety of services in
the care of women, including burial and baptism of the women,
the catechizing of women, and the caring for sick women at home.
However, like the deacons they were not heads of the community
but served in a role auxiliary to that of the bishop and elders.
[12] The term _diakonos_ can be used to refer to both men and
women. The Greek definite article that occurs with the word
determines the gender.
[13] F. F. Bruce, _The Pauline Circle_ (Flemington Markets, New
South Wales, Australia: The Paternoster Press, 1985), p. 88.
[14] It is noteworthy that in Acts and Romans Priscilla is
mentioned before her husband a possible indication that she was
more prominent than her husband in the missionary work. F.
Bruce, however, notes: "But in the secular society of the time,
when one finds a wife named before her husband, the reason
usually is that her social status was higher than his" (p. 45).
[15] The characterization of St. Paul as an enemy of women is an
unfounded prejudice. Actually, there is more evidence for his
friendships with women than for Jesus'. The basis for the view
that Paul was "anti-feminist" is the fact that most of the
Scriptural passages speak of a differentiation between men and
women are in the Pauline epistles. However, love and admiration
for women is not less than that of Jesus. See Clark's discussion
of the Testament approach to women in his _Man and Woman in
Christ_, pp. 235-54.
[16] The most pertinent passages of the New Testament concerning
the positive roles women could and did perform in the primitive
church have been summarized in the previous discussion. The
purpose of this brief excursus is to present representative
evidence reflects early Christian and patristic attitudes
towards the participation of women church's worship and life,
and to do this within the context of developments in heterodox
and heretical Christian groups.
[17] Mankind is also spoken of as created in the image of God in
the broad sense; that is man and woman reflect from God a
variety of attribute s such as self-consciousness, the capacity
for self-transcendence, and rationality.
[18] Martin Luther; _Luther's Works_, American Edition 1 (St.
Louis: (Concordia Publishing House, 1958), pp. 62-63.
[19] See Susan T. Foh, _Woman and the Word of Gad_ (Grand
Rapids: Baker Book House, 1980), pp. 51-52.
[20] 1 Peter 3:7 speaks of the woman as "the weaker sex"
(vessel). It is perhaps best to understand this primarily in the
sense of physical weakness (cf. E. G. Selwyn, _The Epistle of
St. Peter_ [London: Macmillan and Co. LTD, 1964], p. 187),
though Martin Franzmann's caution is appropriate: "In common
parlance this phrase has come to have a derogatory sense. But it
is human male pride that made it depreciatory, not Peter. He
uses it to commend woman to man's love and care. . ." Concordia
Self Study Commentary (St. Louis Concordia Publishing House,
1979), p. 262.
[21] Emil Brunner, _The Divine Imperative_, trans. Olive Wyan
(Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1947), pp. 208-33.
[22] See, for example, _Luther's Works_, American Edition, vol.
13, p. 358, and vol. 41, p. 177.
[23] Franz Pieper, _Christliche Dogmatik_, 3 vols. (St. Louis:
Concordia Publishing House, 1924), 1:629. See English edition,
_Christian Dogmatics_, 4 vols. (St. Louis: Concordia Publishing
House, 1950), 1:526.
[24] Werner Elert, _Morphologie des Luthertums_, 2 vols.
(Munich: C.H. Beck Publishing Co. 1953), 2:37-49. See Elert's
_Das Christliche Ethos_ (Hamburg: Furche-Verlag, 1961) p. 37.
[25] The peculiarly Pauline meaning of "teaching" and
"exercising authority" is treated in later sections of this
document. See pp. 34-37.
[26] The creation of women from man's "rib" indicates the
sameness of nature between man and woman. Karl Barth writes in
his _Church Dogmatics_ (Edinburgh: T. and T. Clark, 1985), vol.
3, 1, p. 296: "She is not himself but something of and from
himself. He is related to her as to another part or member of
his own body . . . With her special existence she something
which he himself ought to fulfill in this special part or member
but cannot, so that it awaits fulfillment in her existence. So
close is she to him." In a 1525 sermon Luther spoke of what this
would mean for the faithful husband: "He should not consider her
a rag on which to wipe his feet; and, indeed, she was not
created from a foot but from a rib in the center of man's body,
so that the man is to regard her not otherwise than his own body
and flesh . . . you should . . . not love her as much as you
love your own body. Nay, nay, your wife you should love as your
own body . . ." Quoted in Ewald M. Plass, _This Is Luther_ (St.
Concordia Publishing House, 1948), p. 257.
[27] Fritz Zerbst offers the following definition in _The Office
of Women in the Church_ (St. Louis Concordia Publishing House,
1955), p. 69: "_Hypotage_ means subjection, _hypotassein_: to
put in subjection, and _hypotassesthai_: to subject oneself, or,
in the passive, to be subjected to be under obedience. For the
idealistic culture of personality this group of words connotes
that which is limiting or restricting, even degrading
humiliating. In its original sense, however, 'to be in
subjection' means to be placed in an order,' to be under
definite _tagmatta_ (arrangement of things in order, as in
ranks, rows, or classes). This original sense it is which
evidently and chiefly underlies the New Testament use of the
term _hypotage_." The implications of this definition are
explored on pages 30-32 of this report.
[28] Michael F. Stitzinger, "Genesis 1-3 and the Male/Female
Role Relationship," _Grace Theological Journal_ (Spring, 1981),
pp. 30-33.
[29] It has been argued that the word _ezer_ does not
necessarily imply subordination in any way. Sixteen of the
twenty-one uses of the word in the Old Testament refer to God as
a superior helper to human beings. The remaining three refer to
men helping other men. But _ezer_ must be seen in context. The
phrase says that God created woman to be a help for man; that is
to say, the purpose of her creation was to be a help to the man.
There is apparently some kind of subordination indicated by the
phrase. See Stitzinger, p. 31.
[30] Clark, p. 28.
[31] David P. Kuske, "The Order of Creation," _Wisconsin
Lutheran Quarterly_ (Winter, 1985), p. 31.
[32] Stitzinger, p. 38. See also Susan T. Foh, "What Is the
Woman's Desire?" _Westminister Theological Journal_ 37-38 (Fall
1974/Spring 1976), pp. 376-83.
[33] Krister Stendahl, _The Bible and the Role of Women_
(Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1966), p. 37.
[34] David Tracy, "Christian Faith and Radical Equality,"
_Theology Today_ (January 1978), pp. 370-77.
[35] Peter Brunner, _The Ministry and the Ministry of Women_
(St. Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1971). Similar to
Brunner's position is that of George M. Knight in _The New
Testament Teaching on the Role Relationship of Male and Female_
(Grand Rapids: Book House, 1977).
[36] C.S. Lewis makes a similar point in his essay on
"Priestesses in the Church?" when he writes, "The point is that
unless 'equal' means 'interchangeable,' equality means nothing
for the priesthood of women" (that is, for women in the pastoral
office). _God in the Dock_, ed. Walter Hooper (Grand Rapids:
William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, 1970) p. 238.
[37] Although it would be anachronistic to read present-day
striving for equality into the words of Paul, it is obvious that
a message such as his does remove the stigmata differences
between Jew and Greek, slave and free, man and woman. As long as
the gospel is a living power, differences in this world cannot
become the basis for arrogance and oppression.
[38] Martin Luther, _Luther's Works_, American Edition 30 (St.
Louis: Concordia Publishing House, 1967), p. 63.
[39] The Formula of Concord, Article 11, notes that the
relationship between male and female was created before the
Fall. Sins associated with this relationship need to be
redeemed, but the relationship itself, since it is created by
God, does not stand in need of redemption.
[40] See the 1981 report of the CTCR on "Human Sexuality: A
Theological Perspective," p. 256.
[41] The Commission recognizes that much could be said about how
the headship/subordination relationship works itself out in
marriage. However, it here limits its discussion of this concept
to the service of women in the church.
[42] Brunner, p. 25.
[43] Zerbst, p. 32.
[44] Zerbst surmises that the people of Paul's day felt much
more keenly than people of our day that the outward demeanor of
a person is an expression of his inner life specifically of his
religious convictions anal moral attitude (p. 40).
[45] Leon Morris, _The First Epistle of Paul to the Corinthians_
(Grand Rapids: William B. Eerdmans Publishing Company, l958), p.
156;. See AC XXVIII, 53-56.
[46] Clark makes a discerning distinction between oppressive-
subordination care-subordination, and unity-subordination. The
latter, summarized here, is described as a relationship that is
carried on for the sake of unity or a higher cause." _Man and
Woman in Christ_, pp. 39-45.
[47] The term which Paul uses for "silence" in 1 Tim. 2:2, 11-12
also occurs in Acts 11:18, 21:14, and 22:24, where total silence
is not implied.
[48] Cf. George Stoeckhardt's discussion (originally published
in 1897) in "Von dem Beruf der Lehrerinnen an christlichen
Gemeindeschulen," _Concordia Theological Monthly 5_
(October1934), pp. 764-73. Stoeckhardt writes, "No, the
apostle's words will hardly allow another interpretation than
that he finds nothing objectionable in the public praying and
prophesying in itself, if only it occurs with a covered head.
But thereby he has not in the least limited or weakened what he
writes in 1 Cor. 14 regarding the silence of women. Neither the
praying nor the prophesying belongs to that speaking which he
forbids for women directly in I Cor. 14:33-36. The women are not
to teach in the assembly of the congregation. They are not to
appear as teaching women, nor to instruct the men, nor to
dispute publicly before and with men. This is, as we have
recognized, the understanding of St. Paul in the latter passage
quoted. Neither the praying nor the prophesying belongs in this
category. Obviously the praying is not teaching or disputing"
(p. 769).
[49] Bo Giertz, "Twenty Three Theses on The Holy Scriptures, The
Woman, and the Office of the Ministry," _The Springfielder_
(March 1970), p. 14. Priscilla, together with Aquila, took
Apollos in and expounded (_exethento_) the way of God more
accurately. Neither _didaskein_ or any other closely related
word is used (Acts 18:26).
[50] Hurley, pp. 200-201.
[51] The role of the deception of the woman in the teaching of
Paul is viewed by many as an effort to exculpate Adam from guilt
and picture women as naturally more subject to deception or
prone to temptation than man. Such conclusions are unwarranted.
They attempt to explain on the basis of the sexes what can be
explained only on the basis of the order of creation which God
established. There is no intimation that woman bears the primary
responsibility for the fall. The point is simply that the woman
was deceived. Being deceived was her role in the fall. See
Zerbst, pp. 54-56.
[52] AC V and XIV speak of the "ministry of teaching the Gospel
and administering the sacraments" on behalf of the church. This
office is distinguished from auxiliary offices, which have been
created by the church to carry out certain functions of the
divinely mandated office of the public ministry. See the CTCR's
1981 report on "The Ministry: Offices, Procedures, and
Nomenclature," pp. 16-19.
[53] An expanded discussion of the functions of the office of
the public ministry follows below on pp. 41, 42.
[54] Hurley. p 246.
[55] "The Ministry," pp. 22-23.
[56] Brunner; p. 35. Also, Zerbst, p. 121: "Whereas rule over
the congregation is exercised through the proclamation of the
Word and the administration of the Sacraments, the ordination of
woman into this office is a practical invalidation of the
proclamation concerning woman's subordination. The demands that
the office be opened completely to women must be resisted,
because they are essentially an attack upon the order of
creation, which must be preserved."
[57] "The Ministry," p. 15.
[58] Ibid., pp. 13-14. As the Commission has stated in its
document on "The Ministry," the office of the _public ministry_
and its functions are called "public" "not because the functions
are always discharge in public, but because they are performed
on behalf of the church" (p. 13).
[59] In an emergency situation a congregation may request a lay
leader to perform some functions of the office of the public
ministry. The fact that in unusual circumstances one performs
such functions does not mean that one holds the office. Luther's
celebrated comment that if "no one were present . . . then a
women must step up and preach to the others, otherwise not," is
not a basis for saying that a woman may occupy the office of the
public ministry.
[60] Martin Luther; _Large Catechism_, I, 130.
[61] Whether congregations establish and maintain a
constitutionally organized voters' assembly is neither commanded
nor forbidden by Scripture. For those congregations with a
voting assembly, the words of Francis Pieper are pertinent: ". .
the voting or balloting in the meetings of orthodox
congregations has a different significance when it concerns
Christian doctrine than when it concerns indifferent matters.)
The only purpose of voting in matters or doctrine is to see
whether all now understand the teaching of the divine Word and
agree to it . . . In _adiaphora_ a vote is taken to ascertain
what the majority regards as the best. The natural order is that
in _adiaphora_ the minority yields to the majority and
acquiesces, not because the majority has the right to rule, but
for love's sake." Pieper, _Christian Dogmatics_, 3:430. Such
votes have no ultimate authority.
[62] See discussion on pp. 32, 33.
[63] "Woman Suffrage in the Church," A Report of the CTCR, 1968,
p. 3.
[64] The historical fact that in the past the Synod restricted
woman suffrage does not mean that the l969 report or the present
one rests on a changed understanding of Scriptural authority or
the principle of the subordination of women in the church. To a
greater extent what is reflected is a changed understanding of
the nature and function of the franchise as practiced in the
contemporary congregation. See 1972 opinion of the CTCR on
"Woman Suffrage," 1973 _Convention Workbook_, pp. 37-38.
[65] Quoted from the CTCR's 1983 report on "Theology and
Practice of the Lord's Supper," p. 30.
[66] Report of the Task Force on Women, 1977 _Convention
Workbook_, p. 54.
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